THE DIGITAL SCIENTISTS

A Journal of Curiosity and Research by Young Minds

By Sania Ejaz and her students

Daastan Publishing 2023

First Published in Pakistan by Daastan PVT LTD

House # A-41, Madni Street, Lala Rukh, Wah Cantt, Punjab 47040

www.daastan.com

www.meraqissa.com

Text copyrights © Sania Ejaz and her students

Book Design copyright © Sania Ejaz

Edited by: Mariam Rizvi

The moral rights of the writer, illustrator and editor have been asserted.

All rights reserved

This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or distributed in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher, except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.

ISBN 978-969-696-894-8

Printed and bound in Pakistan by Daastan Printing Solutions

THE DIGITAL SCIENTISTS

A Journal of Curiosity and Research by Young Minds

PREFACE

It is with great pleasure and immense pride that we present this book, a testament to the relentless pursuit of knowledge and the unwavering spirit of young minds from under-resourced communities. Authored by a group of ambitious school students, this compilation is the culmination of their summer project on research methodology.

As young girls aged 14 to 15, the journey to complete this project was not without its challenges. Overcoming hurdles and bridging literacy gaps, they embarked on a remarkable learning experience that would forever shape their understanding of research and the power of independent learning.

In a world that increasingly relies on digital platforms, these enthusiastic students delve into the vast expanse of the internet, utilizing multiple informative resources to explore their chosen topics from every possible angle. Their curiosity and thirst for knowledge knew no bounds as they delved deeper into their subjects of interest.

The online nature of the project proved to be both a blessing and a challenge. While it opened doors to a wealth of information, it required these young scholars to adapt to virtual learning and independent study. Yet, they embraced this new form of education with remarkable resilience, proving that determination knows no barriers.

Each group of students not only mastered the intricacies of secondary research methodology but also crafted research chapters that stand as exemplary demonstrations of their critical thinking, innovative problem-solving skills, and unique perspectives.

The richness of their work is a true reflection of the commitment and dedication they poured into this endeavor.

In the pages that follow, you will witness the unyielding spirit of these bright minds, as they articulate their findings in their own words. Through this process, they have not only expanded their knowledge but also developed the invaluable skill of expressing their thoughts with eloquence and confidence.

This book is a celebration of empowerment through education, as these young authors break barriers and challenge norms. It serves as an inspiration to countless others, proving that passion, perseverance, and a hunger for knowledge can lead to remarkable achievements.

To the readers, we invite you to join us on this remarkable voyage of discovery as we unravel the fruits of their labor. These young voices deserve to be heard, and we hope that their research and ideas will resonate with you, leaving an indelible mark on your own quest for knowledge.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Writing this book, a compilation of work from government school students, would not have been possible without the immense support and contributions of numerous individuals and organizations.

First and foremost, I extend my heartfelt appreciation to our talented and creative team of the following Super 30 members who poured their hearts and minds into this project. Your dedication and hard work have made this book a true reflection of your unique perspectives and talents:

Aiza Batool, Amna Bhatti, Aneesa Ghaffar, Ayesha Tahir, Bibi Farhat, Dur-E-Sameen, Emaan Jamil, Esha Gulfaraz, Hafsa Rani, Hajra Manzoor, Hamna Mehboob, Javeria Waseem, Mahnoor Bibi, Marium Sajid, Maryam Waheed, Meerab Ejaz, Mekail Shehzad, Memoona Shahid, Muqaddas Sajjad, Muskan Jalil, Noor Ul Eman, Oreeba Bilal, Saba Kanwal, Seerat Gill, Shanza Sheryar, Tania Javed, Wareesha Adnan, Zainab Jameel, Zara Arif

Gratitude is extended to parents, teachers, and the principal for their unwavering support and guidance. Collaboration with fellows and friends enriched the book, and a special mention is given to Teach for Pakistan for its significant role.

This book stands as a testament to the power of collaboration and the transformative impact that can be achieved when we come together with a shared vision. To everyone who played a part in making this publication a reality, thank you from the bottom of my heart.

With profound gratitude,

Ms. Sania Ejaz

TFP Fellow -2022

Contents

The Planets: Venus, Jupiter, Saturn.

Life Cycle of Star -I

Life Cycle of Star -II

Galaxies.

Do Aliens Exist?.

Women in Science.

Contemporary Women in Arts.

Depression And Stress Management

Modern Techniques of Crime Investigation.

Bed Bugs.

Volcanic Eruption.

Endangered Species.

Water Pollution.

Optical Illusion: Is It Science Or Arts.

History of Dinosaurs.

Glossary.

References.

The Planets: Venus, Jupiter, Saturn

Have you ever thought about what it would be like to live on another planet other than Earth? What do you think about Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn? As you might know, the sun is gradually becoming hotter day by day, which poses a danger to Earth. One day, the sun might become so hot that it could destroy the Earth and boil the water on its surface. Additionally, there is a risk of volcanoes, tsunamis, and other natural disasters. Even if we ignore all these issues, overpopulation is always a problem, leading to resource shortages and the need for more food and space. Therefore, we need to find another planet that can support life. As you might know, our solar system consists of eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth (where you currently live!), Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus. And do you know where our solar system is located? It is in the Milky Way galaxy! Now, let's delve into more detail about Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn, specifically their atmosphere, gravity, magnetic field, and much more, so we can determine whether the conditions on these planets are suitable for life or not.

VENUS

Venus is the second planet from the sun, while Earth (where you currently live!) is the third. It is the hottest planet in the solar system. So, why is Venus the hottest planet in the solar system? The answer to this question lies in its atmosphere. Venus has a thick atmosphere that traps heat, making it the hottest planet. Venus is often called the "Earth's twin" because both planets are similar in size, structure, and density. However, they differ in many aspects. For example, Venus has a higher air pressure at its surface than Earth. Another interesting fact is that a day on Venus is longer than a year on Earth. A day on Venus lasts 243 Earth days, while a year on Venus lasts 225 Earth days. Venus also has the slowest rotation in the solar system, with the planet rotating in the opposite direction to other planets. This means that sunrise occurs in the west and sunset in the east. Venus's slow rotation also indicates that it has a very weak magnetic field. Moreover, Venus does not have any moons or rings.

Venus (third brightest object): Have you ever looked at the night sky? You'll notice that it is full of beautiful stars, and there is a moon, which is the brightest object in the night sky. However, Venus is the third brightest object in the sky, after the sun and the moon. If you want to see Venus, you have to look at the sky just after sunset or before sunrise. However, it can be mistaken for a star. Venus, being the second planet from the sun, also appears in the sky during the daytime, but you can only see it if you know where to look. Venus is referred to as the "goddess of love and beauty" by the Romans, which is why they gave it that name.

Ashen Light of Venus:

You might be wondering why the night side of Venus is not completely black. Giovanni Riccioli discovered a faint glow on the night side of Venus, which astronomers called "Ashen light." However, the cause of ashen light is not fully understood. In the 1980s, it was believed that ashen light was caused by lightning on Venus, but this hypothesis is not widely accepted. Currently, it is believed to be an auroral phenomenon resulting from solar particle bombardment on the dark side of Venus. However, the exact cause is yet to be determined.

Atmosphere and Climate of Venus:

Venus's atmosphere is mainly composed of carbon dioxide and clouds of sulfuric acid that cover the planet's surface. The thick atmosphere of Venus traps heat, making it the hottest planet in the solar system. The atmosphere is extremely hot and dense. Carbon dioxide is abundant in Venus's atmosphere, generating the strongest greenhouse effect in the solar system. Although Mercury is the closest planet to the sun and Venus is the second closest, the surface of Venus is hotter than Mercury's surface. Venus has a surface temperature of at least 462°C (864°F), while Mercury's surface temperature is -220°C (-364°F), which is lower than Venus's surface temperature. Venus does not experience seasons, and its color appears yellow-white due to the thick carbon dioxide atmosphere and sulfuric acid clouds covering it. The sulfuric acid rain on Venus never reaches the ground as it evaporates before reaching the surface. This phenomenon is known as virga. There is a debate on whether the sulfuric acid clouds of Venus are capable of producing lightning. The rate of lightning on Venus is at least half that on Earth, but the cause of lightning on Venus remains unknown.  

Venus has an outer layer called the crust, which is mostly solid rock. Beneath the crust, there is a layer with chambers of molten magma, and below that is the mantle. This region is extremely hot. In the center of Venus, there is a metallic core consisting mostly of iron and nickel. Whether the core is solid, or liquid remains unknown. The crust of Venus is possibly twice as thick as Earth's.

The landscape of Venus:

The surface of Venus is very different from that of Earth and is considered dangerous. Space missions to Venus have revealed that its surface is covered with thousands of volcanoes, craters, and extensive lava plains. Venus has an air pressure at its surface more than 90 times that of Earth. The average surface of Venus is less than a billion years old and possibly as young as 150 million years old.

From a geological perspective, Venus has a relatively young surface with the fewest impact craters, indicating its youthfulness. Venus's features are named after female figures, given that it is named after the goddess of love and beauty. For example, Ishtar Terra and Maat Mons, Venus's tallest volcano, is named after the Egyptian goddess of truth. There are also craters named after Eve, among others. Some other notable features on the surface of Venus include "pancake domes," which are small volcanoes formed by sticky lava, and "tick" domes that mostly occur in the lowland plains. Only 8% of Venus's surface is occupied by "tesserae," which often represent the oldest material on Venus's surface. Astronomers use the count of impact craters to date the surface of Venus for scientific studies.

Phases of Venus:

Just like the phases of Earth's moon, Venus also exhibits phases. Galileo Galilei was the first to observe the phases of Venus using his telescope. The phases of Venus change from a crescent to a semicircle to a full circle and back to a crescent. The phases of Venus occur because our view of Venus from Earth changes, causing us to see different phases of Venus. The phases of Venus indicate that Venus orbits around the sun, not the Earth. While the Earth's moon completes its cycle in just a month, Venus takes 584 days to complete its cycle from new to full.

Venus and Earth: Are They Twins?

Venus and Earth are somewhat similar. They are similar in size, structure, and density. The gravity of these two planets is almost the same, and they are both composed of similar materials. However, Venus and Earth have significant differences, including their atmosphere, surface, clouds, and moons. Venus has a thick atmosphere mainly composed of carbon dioxide, while Earth has a diverse atmosphere with a significant amount of nitrogen and oxygen. Venus's surface features include volcanoes, plains, mountains, and craters, whereas Earth has a more varied surface with oceans, continents, and diverse landforms. Venus's clouds are made up of sulfuric acid, while Earth's clouds primarily consist of water vapours. Additionally, Venus has no moons, whereas Earth has one moon.

Is Venus suitable for Human Life?

The answer to this question is "No" because Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system. Its atmosphere primarily consists of carbon dioxide, which is unsuitable for human respiration. The surface of Venus is inhospitable, with a landscape dominated by volcanoes, mountains, plains, and craters. There is no presence of water or greenery on Venus, making it impossible for humans to survive without essential resources such as drinking water and food. The extreme air pressure on Venus also poses significant challenges for human habitation. However, some scientists theorize that high in the clouds of Venus, microbes might exist where it is cooler, and the pressure is similar to Earth's surface. The presence of phosphine, an indicator of microbial life, has been observed in the clouds of Venus. However, there is currently no conclusive evidence to prove the existence of life in Venus's clouds.

JUPITER

 You may already know that Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system and the fifth planet from the Sun. However, did you know that it is the fourth brightest object in the Earth's sky, after the Sun, Moon, and Venus? Jupiter is a gas giant and the largest planet in the solar system, which is why the Romans named it after the king of their gods. It is a very massive planet, more than twice as massive as all the other planets in the solar system combined. Do you know which planet has the largest number of moons? The answer is "Jupiter." Jupiter has 95 moons and a thin set of rings. Most of the moons are too small to observe with small instruments. The most famous and massive moons of Jupiter are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Jupiter's rings are made up of dust and are too faint to be seen clearly. Jupiter also has a thick atmosphere, and the stripes and swirls on its surface are cold. The planet experiences big storms, such as the famous "Great Red Spot," which has been raging for hundreds of years. Jupiter also has a powerful magnetosphere.

Inside Jupiter, it is mostly composed of hydrogen and helium, similar to the Sun. The first layer of liquid inside Jupiter, beneath the atmosphere, is liquid hydrogen. Deeper in the atmosphere, the temperature and pressure increase, causing the hydrogen gas to change into liquid form. Did you know that Jupiter has the largest ocean in the solar system? It's composed of hydrogen instead of water. Below the liquid hydrogen layer, there is a metallic hydrogen layer, and at the deepest part of Jupiter, there is a core. Jupiter, being a gas giant, does not have a solid surface beneath its clouds. However, it is speculated that Jupiter may have a solid inner core. The core occupies 20-50% of the planet's radius and is extremely hot. The central core of Jupiter is made mostly of solid materials, such as iron and silicate minerals. Regarding Jupiter's atmosphere and climate, it is composed of about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium. The planet is covered in thick yellow, brown, red, and white clouds.

 Jupiter has three distinct cloud layers. The first and top layer of clouds is made up of ammonia ice, the middle layer of clouds is composed of ammonium hydrosulphide crystals, and the inner layer of clouds may consist of water ice and vapor. Jupiter's fast rotation creates strong jet streams that separate the clouds into dark belts and bright zones parallel to its equator. The belts and zones undergo rapid changes due to moving eddies, waves, and plumes. The zones are colder and higher in altitude compared to the belts. Lightning has been observed in the upper atmosphere of Jupiter, with bright flashes known as "elves" or "sprites." Due to the presence of hydrogen, the lightning appears blue or pink.

The Great Red Spot is a well-known feature of Jupiter. It is a stormy region of high pressure that rotates in a counterclockwise direction, with a period of six days. Although the Great Red Spot is reddish in color, the exact cause of its coloration is still unknown. It is the largest storm in the solar system, big enough to engulf at least three Earths. The Great Red Spot has been observed on Jupiter for at least 342 years, first observed in 1664 by Robert Hooke.

Jupiter also possesses a ring system, which was first discovered by Voyager I in 1979. Unlike Saturn's rings, Jupiter's rings are made up of dust particles and are faint and thin, making them difficult to see. The Jupiter ring system consists of three main segments: the inner halo, the relatively bright main ring, and the outer gossamer ring. These rings are formed from materials coming from the planet's satellites, which are drawn into Jupiter due to its strong gravity. Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the solar system. Its four largest moons orbit within its magnetosphere. Jupiter's magnetic field is 20 times stronger than that of Earth's and generates brilliant aurorae at the poles.

In terms of orbit and rotation, Jupiter has short days and long years. It has the shortest day in the solar system, taking only about 10 hours, while a year on Jupiter lasts about 12 Earth years. Jupiter does not experience extreme seasons like other planets, and it spins nearly upright. Jupiter has 95 moons, but the four most famous moons are Io, Callisto, Europa, and Ganymede. These four moons were discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 using a telescope and are collectively known as the "Galilean moons."

Lo: Lo is the fourth largest moon among the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and is slightly larger than Earth's moon. It has the strongest gravity and highest density among all other moons. Lo was named after the mythological character Lo and is the most volcanically active world in the solar system. It lacks impact craters but has hundreds of volcanoes on its surface.

Europa: Europa is the second of the Galilean moons and is slightly smaller than Earth's moon. Its surface is smooth and bright, with a layer of ice theorized to cover a subsurface liquid water ocean. Europa has some craters but is tectonically active and young. Its atmosphere primarily consists of oxygen. It has an iron core, a rocky mantle, and an ocean of salty water, making it a potential candidate for extraterrestrial life.

Ganymede: Ganymede is the third Galilean moon and the largest moon in the solar system. It is an icy world with a large number of craters and a thin oxygen atmosphere. Ganymede has its own magnetic field and is primarily composed of silicate rock and water ice. There may be a saltwater ocean below its surface.

Callisto: Callisto is the fourth Galilean moon and is composed of approximately equal amounts of rock and ice, making it the least dense of the Galilean moons. It is one of the most heavily cratered moons in the solar system, and its atmosphere is composed of carbon dioxide.

On Jupiter, there is a unique phenomenon known as "diamond rain." Due to the pressure inside Jupiter, carbon can be easily transformed into diamonds. First, lightning transforms methane into carbon, and as it falls, the carbon hardens, turning into chunks of graphite after traveling 1,600 km and then transforming into diamonds after an additional 6,000 km. Imagine if it rained diamonds on Earth!

Is Jupiter suitable for life? Unfortunately, Jupiter is not a suitable place to live. Being a gas giant composed of gas and liquid, its extreme air pressure, temperature, and other materials cannot support life as we know it. Jupiter lacks oxygen, which is crucial for humans. Although Jupiter has a solid core, it is extremely hot, and its conditions are inhospitable for humans. However, one of Jupiter's moons, Europa, is considered a potential candidate for life, as it has a vast ocean of water beneath its icy surface.

SATURN

Saturn is the second largest planet in our solar system. It is considered a very beautiful planet because of its rings. The planet is named after a Roman god and is classified as a gas giant, lacking a solid surface like Earth. In fact, its surface is mainly composed of helium, the same gas found in birthday balloons. Saturn's rings are made primarily of helium and are located at the same distance as the Earth to the Moon. It has 82 confirmed moons, but there may be more yet to be discovered. A day on Saturn lasts only 10.7 hours, while its year is equivalent to 29 Earth years. Therefore, a day on Saturn is significantly shorter than a day on Earth, with the planet completing one full rotation in just 10.7 hours. Saturn's mean density is only 0.687 grams per cubic centimeter, which is less than that of water. Consequently, Saturn could float in water because it is mostly composed of gas. The planet experiences very windy conditions.

In terms of distance and size, Saturn is about 9.5 times farther away from the Sun compared to Earth. It is the sixth most distant planet, located at a distance of 9.6 from the Sun and 10.6 from Earth. Light takes approximately 1 hour and 29 minutes to travel from Saturn to Earth. With a radius of 58,232 km, Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system. Despite its massive size, Saturn has a greater gravitational pull than Earth.

Upon entering Saturn's atmosphere, the first layer encountered consists of clouds of ammonia crystals, which have a high density and a pressure of 1atm, greater than Earth's atmospheric pressure. Beyond the ammonia crystals layer lies a dark brown layer containing ammonia sulphide and hydrosulphide, with temperatures around -100 degrees Celsius. As one delves deeper into this layer, darkness prevails, and visibility diminishes. Extending over nearly 200 kilometers, Saturn's third layer comprises clouds of water ice, making it challenging to return once Saturn is descended.

The observation of Galileo and Christiaan Huygens contributed significant discoveries regarding Saturn. Galileo first observed Saturn's rings in 1610 and initially believed them to be moons or some kind of arm extending from the planet. However, in 1669, the renowned astronomer Christiaan Huygens revealed that Saturn possessed a complex ring system revolving around its axis. Saturn's rings are not solid; rather, they consist of bits of ice, dust, and rock, with some pieces smaller than a grain of sand. The ring system is divided into seven groups: D ring, C ring, B ring, A ring, and several others. The rings extend up to 282,000 kilometers (175,000 miles) from the planet and consist of a total of eight major rings, including three main rings and five dusty rings.  The color of Saturn's rings is a combination of brown and golden, with a thickness of approximately 300 feet. The rings formed millions of years ago when Saturn's moons came too close, resulting in the moon crossing Saturn's Roche limit. Beyond this limit, Saturn's gravity tore the moon into fragments, which now exist as the rings surrounding the planet. Saturn is a planet with numerous moons, having confirmed 82 so far. These moons vary in size, ranging from the large moon Titan, which is bigger than Mercury and the second largest moon in the solar system, to small, round moons. Astronomers believe there are thousands more moons hidden within Saturn's ring system.

Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, was discovered on March 25, 1655, by Christiaan Huygens. Visually, Titan appears larger than Mercury and is one of the most intriguing moons in our solar system. It boasts various mountains and hills on its surface and possesses a thick enough atmosphere, making it the only moon in our solar system with this characteristic. Titan has an average temperature of approximately -180 degrees Celsius and takes about 16 Earth days to orbit Saturn. It is 50% larger than Earth and ranks as the second largest moon in our solar system. In 2014, scientists discovered a temporary feature on Titan known as the "Magic Island." This name was given due to unique characteristics observed on the moon's surface, similar to phenomena found on Earth. Notably, Titan contains liquid methane and ethane oceans, making it the only other world in the solar system with such substantial liquids on its surface. It possesses lakes, oceans, rivers, and rain.

NASA, the space agency responsible for space exploration, is embarking on its next mission called the "Dragonfly Mission." The mission involves sending a small drone called Dragonfly to Titan, the largest moon of Saturn. The drone will explore Titan for two years to determine if life is possible on the moon. The mission will be launched in 2027 and is expected to reach Titan in 2034, taking a full eight years to travel from Earth to its destination.

Enceladus, previously known as the sixth-largest moon of Saturn, was later renamed to avoid confusion after the discovery of additional moons. This moon is covered with a thick layer of ice, making its surface highly reflective. Enceladus has a diameter of 500 kilometers and is remarkably bright and cool. It is the sixth moon within Saturn's largest E ring and was discovered on August 28, 1789, by Frederick William Herschel. There is a significant amount of water beneath Enceladus' ice layer.

Saturn and Jupiter are planets known for raining diamonds. Due to the high atmospheric pressure on these gas giants, hydrogen, and carbon bonds break, resulting in solidified carbon forming diamond shapes. As a result, whenever it rains on Saturn and Jupiter, it rains diamonds. The temperature on these planets is approximately -200 degrees Celsius. If a human were to visit, they would turn into stone. Research suggests that there are still diamonds present within Saturn's layers.

Life Cycle of Star -I

At night, when we gaze at the sky, we see stars that appear incredibly beautiful. As a child, I often wondered about their origin, their life cycle, and how they eventually meet their end. But what exactly is a star?

 A star is an enormous mass of hot and glowing gases held together by its own gravity. Stars come in various colors, sizes, brightness levels, and temperatures, and some even possess unique characteristics. Our closest star to Earth is the Sun. Within the Milky Way Galaxy, where our solar system resides, there exist over 300 billion stars. Each star is distinct from the others, with differences in age, existence, and appearance. It may seem peculiar that the light of some stars can still be observed despite their no longer existing; this is because their light continues to travel throughout the universe, reaching us even after thousands of years. Stars, much like us, are born, live for a time, and eventually die. However, their light continues its journey across the cosmos. By the time their light reaches us, those stars may have perished for thousands of years.

TYPES OF STARS: There are various types of stars, categorized based on their size. Some examples include: